Clear, evidence-based answers about teeth and gums

Twice a day, two minutes, fluoride toothpaste, a soft brush and a gentle technique. Here is what that looks like in practice, and the small habits that make it work better.

Head size, bristle firmness, manual or electric, and brushes for children, braces and people who find brushing hard. What health bodies say to look for, and how to look after your brush.

What is in toothpaste and why, how strong the fluoride should be, what sensitivity and whitening toothpastes can and cannot do, when a stronger prescription paste helps, and the ingredients people ask about.

A toothbrush cannot reach the gaps between your teeth. Here is how floss, interdental brushes and water flossers compare, how to use each one, and what to do if your gums bleed.

Some health bodies suggest cleaning your tongue every day; others say it is a matter of preference. What the tongue coating is, what the evidence on bad breath shows, and how to do it gently.

What fluoride does for your teeth, how strong your toothpaste should be in the UK, Australia and the US, and what health bodies say about fluoride in water, varnish and safety.

What community water fluoridation is, the target levels in the UK, Australia and the US, how to find out if your water has fluoride, what the evidence shows, and how policy has changed in each country, with dates.

Most people do not need mouthwash, but some types can help in particular situations. Here is how fluoride, antiseptic and cosmetic mouthwashes differ, when to use them, and what to know for children.

A mouthguard cushions a knock to the face and helps protect your teeth, lips and jaw during sport. Here is which sports call for one, how the types compare, advice for children and braces, and what to do if a tooth is knocked out.

Braces and aligners make teeth harder to keep clean, and a broken bracket or lost retainer can set treatment back. Here is how to clean, what to eat, how to handle soreness and breakages, and how to look after retainers.

A practical guide for family members and carers who help a child or adult with a disability, dementia or frailty to look after their mouth, from brushing and dentures to spotting pain and finding dental care.

Arthritis, a stroke, a hand injury or a condition such as Parkinson's can make it hard to hold a toothbrush or floss. Here are the adaptations health bodies suggest, and who can help.

Colds, flu and stomach bugs can dry your mouth, bring stomach acid onto your teeth and have you taking sugary medicines. Here is how to protect your teeth until you feel better.

Toothache is usually a sign that a tooth or the gum around it needs treatment. Here are the common causes, what you can safely do while you wait for a dentist, and the signs that mean you need help the same day.

A dental abscess is a build-up of pus from an infection in a tooth or the gum. It will not go away on its own and needs a dentist. Here is how to recognise one, how it is treated and the signs that need emergency care.

A cracked or chipped tooth is usually not serious, but a crack cannot heal on its own and can get worse. Here are the signs, what to do straight away, how each kind of crack is treated and how to protect your teeth.

Sinusitis can make your upper back teeth ache, and a tooth problem can sometimes affect the sinus. Here is how health bodies describe the difference, what helps, and when to see a dentist or doctor.

A short, sharp twinge from something hot, cold or sweet is common and usually manageable. Here is what causes it, what you can do at home, and the signs that mean a dentist should take a look.

Bad breath is common and usually starts in the mouth, so it can often be fixed at home. Here is what causes it, what actually helps, and when it is worth seeing a dentist or doctor.

A bad, metallic, bitter or salty taste in your mouth is common and usually not serious. Here are the causes the health bodies describe, what helps, and when to see a dentist, pharmacist or doctor.

Bleeding gums are the most common early sign of gum disease. Caught early it can be reversed; left alone it can damage the bone that holds your teeth. Here is how to spot it, treat it and prevent it.

Gums that bleed when you brush are often a sign of gingivitis, the early and reversible stage of gum disease. Here are the other common causes, what to do at home, and when to see a dentist or a doctor.

Swollen gums are most often a sign of gingivitis, but an abscess, a wisdom tooth coming through, pregnancy, some medicines and dentures that no longer fit can also be the cause. Here is how to tell, what helps and when swelling is urgent.

Receding gums pull back from the teeth and expose part of the root, which can make teeth look longer and feel sensitive. Here is what causes it, why it matters, and how a dentist can help.

An adult tooth that feels loose needs a dentist's attention. Advanced gum disease, an injury and teeth grinding can all loosen teeth. Here is what may be behind it, what a dentist can do, and when to get help quickly.

Tooth decay starts when plaque bacteria turn sugar into acid that weakens your teeth. Found early it can be stopped, and most decay can be prevented with simple daily habits.

Some wear on teeth is normal over a lifetime, but acid, hard brushing and grinding can wear them down faster. Here are the kinds of tooth wear, the signs, and how to slow it down.

A dry mouth is common and usually not serious in itself, but saliva protects your teeth. Here is what causes it, what helps, and when to get it checked.

Breathing through your mouth, especially at night, can dry your mouth and may affect your gums and teeth. Here is what causes it, when it matters in children, and what helps.

Many people grind or clench their teeth, often in their sleep and without knowing it. Here is how to spot it, what it is linked to, and how a dentist can protect your teeth.

Jaw pain is often caused by a problem with the jaw joint or the muscles that move it, which usually settles with simple self-care. Here is what helps, what the evidence says about treatments, and the warning signs that need urgent help.

Most mouth ulcers are harmless and heal on their own within one to two weeks. Here is what causes them, what eases the soreness, and when an ulcer that will not heal should be checked.

Burning mouth syndrome causes a burning, scalding or tingling feeling in a mouth that looks normal. Here is who gets it, which other causes are checked first, how it is managed and what you can do yourself.

Oral thrush is a fungal infection of the mouth. It is common in babies and in people who wear dentures, use steroid inhalers or have certain health conditions, and it usually clears with antifungal treatment.

Cold sores are small blisters around the mouth caused by the herpes simplex virus. Most heal on their own, but they are contagious, and they can be dangerous for newborn babies.

Hand, foot and mouth disease is a common viral illness in young children that causes painful mouth ulcers and a rash or blisters on the hands and feet. It usually clears in 7 to 10 days. Here is how to ease it and when to get help.

Most changes to the tongue, such as a white coating, a dark furry look or map-like red patches, are harmless. Here is what the common ones may mean, what helps, and which changes need checking.

Angular cheilitis is inflammation at the corners of the mouth, causing redness, cracks and soreness. It is common, it is not contagious, and it usually clears once the cause is dealt with.

Oral lichen planus is a long-term inflammatory condition that causes white, lace-like patches and sometimes sore red areas inside the mouth. It is not infectious. Treatment eases symptoms, and regular dental checks matter.

Most mouth ulcers, patches and lumps are not cancer, but any that do not clear up should be checked. Here are the signs, how long to wait before getting checked in the UK, Australia and the US, and how to lower your risk.

White or red patches in the mouth have many causes, from thrush and cheek biting to leukoplakia. Most are not cancer, but a patch that does not rub off or go away should be checked. Here is what the common causes are and what happens next.

Many lumps in the mouth are harmless, such as mucus cysts, firm lumps from biting, bony growths and salivary stones. Here is what the common ones look like and which signs mean a lump should be checked promptly.

Cuts and knocks to the lips, tongue, cheeks and gums are common, especially in children, and often look worse than they are. Here is first aid, when a cut needs stitches, burns from hot food, signs of infection and when to get emergency help.

Teeth can be stained on the surface by food, drink and smoking, or discoloured from within by injury, some medicines, fluorosis or age. Here is what causes each, what a dentist can do, and the rules on whitening.

Chalky white patches on teeth can be early tooth decay, fluorosis from too much fluoride in childhood, or a problem with how the enamel formed. Here is how to tell them apart and what can be done.

Diabetes raises the risk of gum disease, and gum disease can make blood glucose harder to control. Here is how diabetes affects the mouth, how to protect it, and what to tell your dentist.

Stomach acid is strong enough to wear away tooth enamel. Here is how reflux and repeated vomiting affect teeth, how to protect them, and why it helps to tell your doctor and dentist.

Chemotherapy and radiotherapy to the head and neck often cause mouth problems. Here is what can happen, why a dental check before treatment matters, how to care for your mouth, and when to call your team urgently.

Osteoporosis can affect the jawbone, and the medicines that protect your bones very rarely cause a jaw problem called osteonecrosis. Here is what to tell your dentist and why you should not stop treatment on your own.

Many everyday medicines can dry your mouth, feed tooth decay, change your gums or taste, stain teeth or affect dental treatment. Here is what to look out for, what helps, and why your dentist needs to know what you take.

If you take warfarin, a newer anticoagulant or an antiplatelet medicine such as aspirin or clopidogrel, most dental treatment can still go ahead. Here is what to tell your dentist, why you should not stop your medicine on your own, and what to do about bleeding afterwards.

Sjögren's syndrome is a long-term condition that dries the mouth and eyes. Less saliva means more risk of tooth decay and thrush. Here is what it is, how it is diagnosed and treated, and how to look after your mouth.

Gum disease and heart disease are linked, but it has not been shown that one causes the other. Here is what is known, when antibiotics before dental treatment are advised, and what to tell your dentist.

Chronic kidney disease, dialysis and transplant medicines can all affect the mouth, from a dry mouth and a metallic taste to swollen gums. Here is what to watch for and what to tell your dentist.

Depression, anxiety and other mental health conditions can make it harder to look after your teeth, and some medicines dry the mouth. Small steps help, and your dental team can support you.

Eating disorders can affect the teeth, gums and mouth, especially when they involve vomiting. Here is what can happen, how to protect your teeth, and where to find support without judgement.

Drugs such as methamphetamine, cocaine, cannabis, ecstasy and opioids can harm teeth and gums, mostly through dry mouth, grinding and missed brushing. Practical ways to protect your mouth, why to tell your dentist, and where to get confidential help.

HIV can make some mouth problems more likely, and effective treatment has made many of them less common. Here is what to look out for, how to protect your teeth, and your right to dental care.

Practical ways to make toothbrushing and dental visits easier for autistic children and adults, from sensory-friendly routines to preparing for appointments and the specialist services available if they are needed.

Why people with a learning disability are more likely to have mouth problems, how to spot hidden pain, the reasonable adjustments you can ask for, consent, and where to find special care dental services.

Dementia makes mouth care harder over time, and someone who cannot explain their pain may show it in other ways. Here is why dental care matters, how to plan it early, and where families and carers can get help.

Parkinson's can make brushing harder and bring a dry mouth, drooling and swallowing difficulties. Here is what can help, how to plan dental visits and where to get support.

A stroke can weaken one side of the body, affect swallowing and dry the mouth, which makes mouth care both harder and more important. Here is what can help in hospital and at home.

When someone is very ill or dying, a dry or sore mouth is common. Keeping it clean and moist is a simple, gentle way to help them feel comfortable. Here is what palliative care guidance suggests, and where the sources differ.

What you eat and drink, and when, makes a real difference to your teeth. Here are the drinks, snacks and eating habits that health bodies describe as tooth-friendly.

Sugar feeds the bacteria that cause tooth decay, and acidic drinks can wear enamel away. How often you have them matters as much as how much. Here is what health bodies advise.

Water, milk, juice, fizzy and diet drinks, sports and energy drinks, tea, coffee and plant-based milks compared, plus how the way you drink affects your teeth, from UK, Australian and US health bodies.

Sugar-free gum and sugar substitutes can help protect your teeth, but the evidence has limits and there are some cautions. Here is what health bodies and reviews say.

Smoking raises your risk of gum disease, tooth loss and mouth cancer, and stains your teeth. Vaping is newer and less studied. Here is what health bodies say, and where to get help to quit.

Alcohol raises the risk of mouth cancer, especially with smoking, and many drinks are acidic, sugary or dark enough to harm or stain teeth. Here is what health bodies say, the drinking guidance in the UK, Australia and US, and where to get help.

Mouth piercings carry more risk than many other piercings, including infection, swelling, chipped teeth and gum damage. Here are the risks, how to care for a piercing, the signs of infection and when to get urgent help.

When teeth come through, how to handle teething, when to see a dentist, and how much toothpaste to use at each age. The toothpaste advice differs between the UK, Australia and the US, so each is set out separately.

What tongue-tie is, the feeding signs to look for, how it should be assessed, what the division procedure involves, what the evidence shows, and where to get help in the UK, Australia and the US.

Why babies and young children suck dummies, thumbs and fingers, how a long-lasting habit can affect the teeth and bite, how to use a dummy safely, and how to help a child stop.

How tooth decay starts in babies and toddlers, the early signs to look for, how bottles, cups and night feeds play a part, and what dental teams can do, from fluoride varnish to treatment in hospital.

When to book your child's first dental check-up in the UK, Australia and the US, what happens at the appointment, and simple ways to prepare a young child and keep visits positive.

When baby teeth usually come through, which signs are and are not down to teething, what safely helps, and the teething products that health bodies and medicines regulators warn against.

When baby teeth usually fall out and adult teeth come through, what to do about wobbly teeth and adult teeth arriving before the baby tooth has gone, and when to see a dentist.

Some children's back teeth come through with soft, chalky, discoloured enamel. This is molar incisor hypomineralisation (MIH). Here is what it looks like, what is and is not known about the cause, and how dentists treat it.

The teenage years bring braces, wisdom teeth, sport, energy drinks and new pressures. Here is what health bodies say about each, and where young people can get free or low-cost dental care.

Some people are born with teeth that never develop, and some grow extra ones. Here is how common each is, how they are found, how they can affect the bite and smile, and the treatment options.

Pregnancy can make gums more likely to bleed and morning sickness can expose teeth to acid. Here is how to protect your mouth, why dental treatment is safe while pregnant, and what free care is available.

Around menopause, some people notice a dry mouth, a burning feeling, sore gums or sensitive teeth, and bone loss becomes more likely. Here is what helps, what to tell your dentist, and what osteoporosis medicines mean for dental treatment.

Dry mouth from medicines, receding gums and decay on exposed roots become more common with age, and many people wear dentures. Here is how to manage each one, and how to help someone who can no longer clean their own teeth.

How to find a dentist in the UK, Australia and the US, how to check that a dental professional is registered or licensed, and who to complain to if something goes wrong.

What a dentist checks at a routine visit, what a scale and clean involves, how often you need to go in the UK, Australia and the US, and when X-rays are needed.

What dental hygienists, dental therapists and oral health therapists do, whether you can book one without seeing a dentist first in the UK, Australia and the US, what a hygiene appointment involves, and how often to go.

Why dentists take X-rays, the main types from bitewings to 3-D scans, how often you need them, how much radiation is involved, and what to know if you are pregnant or it is for a child.

What to do straight away for a knocked-out adult tooth, a broken tooth, severe toothache or a dental abscess, and when to go to hospital rather than an urgent dentist.

Fissure sealants are thin coatings painted into the grooves of the back teeth to help keep out food and bacteria. Here is who they are for, how they are put on, how long they last and what the evidence shows.

A filling repairs a tooth damaged by decay or injury. When the soft tissue inside the tooth is infected, root canal treatment can often save the tooth. Here is what each involves and how to look after your tooth afterwards.

Some sensitivity and soreness after a filling is common and usually settles. Here is what to expect as the numbness wears off, how long sensitivity can last, the signs that something is wrong, and what a dentist can do.

A crown is a cap that covers the whole of a damaged tooth. A veneer is a thin layer fixed to the front of a tooth, mainly to change how it looks. Here is what each involves, how long they last and what to ask before cosmetic treatment.

Cosmetic dentistry covers treatments that change how your teeth look, from whitening and bonding to veneers, crowns and braces. Here is what each involves, who can provide it, why removing healthy tooth matters, and what to ask first.

Many wisdom teeth come through without trouble, but some get stuck and cause pain or infection. Here is when removal is and is not recommended, what it involves, and how to recover well.

Why a tooth may need to come out, what happens on the day, how to look after the socket while it heals, and the warning signs that mean you should contact your dentist.

Dry socket is a painful problem that can follow a tooth extraction when the protective blood clot is lost. Here is how to recognise it, what a dentist does, how to cope until you are seen, and how to lower the risk.

Fixed braces, removable appliances and clear aligners all move teeth, but they suit different problems. Here is how each works, who provides them, what regulators say about aligners sent by post, and why retainers matter.

Treatment for gum disease moves in steps, from better cleaning and a professional clean to deep cleaning below the gumline, sometimes surgery, and lifelong maintenance. Here is what each step involves and how you may feel afterwards.

Most toothache and dental infections are treated by a dentist, not by antibiotics. Here is when antibiotics are used, why they are not given more often, and how to take them safely if you need them.

A missing tooth can be replaced with a denture, a bridge or an implant, and sometimes it can be left. Here is how each option works, who it suits, how to look after it and what it may cost.

Dentures are removable false teeth that replace some or all of your natural teeth. Here is how the main types differ, what to expect when they are new, how to clean and store them, and which problems need a dentist.

A dental implant replaces the root of a missing tooth and can hold a crown, bridge or denture. Here is who is suitable, what treatment involves, the risks, and how to look after an implant.

Feeling nervous about the dentist is very common. Practical ways to cope, how to tell your dental team, and the extra help available, from relaxation techniques to sedation.

How local anaesthetic, sedation and general anaesthetic differ, the types of dental sedation, who they may suit, how to prepare, and why you need someone to take you home.

A device worn over your teeth at night can hold your lower jaw forward and help with snoring and some sleep apnoea. Here is who it suits, how it compares with CPAP, and what to watch for.

How dental care is paid for in the UK, Australia and the US, who can get free or lower-cost care, and practical questions to ask about costs before treatment starts.

Many people travel overseas for dental treatment, usually to save money. Here is what regulators and dental bodies in the UK, Australia and the US advise you to check before, during and after the trip, and what to do if something goes wrong.

If you are unhappy with your dental care, the practice is usually the best place to start. Here is who to go to next in the UK, Australia and the US, the time limits, and how to get your records or a second opinion.